(1) Black-Box Test Techniques

Equivalence Partitioning (EP)

• Divides data into partitions including:
• Inputs, outputs, configuration items
• Internal values, time-related values, interface parameters
• Partition characteristics:
• Continuous/discrete, ordered/unordered, finite/infinite
• Non-overlapping and non-empty sets
• Valid partition (valid values) vs invalid partition (invalid values)
• Coverage formula: No. of partitions exercised by at least one test case Coverage = ------------------------------------------------------- × 100% Total number of identified partitions

Boundary Value Analysis (BVA)

• Focuses on boundary values of ordered partitions
• Boundary values: Minimum and maximum values of a partition
• Approaches:
• 2-value BVA: Boundary value + closest neighbor in adjacent partition
• 3-value BVA: Boundary value + both neighbors
• Coverage formula: No. of boundary values tested by at least one value Coverage = ------------------------------------------------------- × 100% Total number of boundary values

Decision Table Testing

• Records complex logic/business rules
• Defines conditions and resulting actions
• Each column = decision rule
• Coverage formula: No. of decision rules tested by at least one test case Coverage = ------------------------------------------------------- × 100% Total number of decision rules

State Transition Testing

• Models system behavior through states and transitions
• Transition syntax: event [guard condition] / action
• Coverage types:

1. All states coverage: No. of visited states Coverage = ---------------------------- × 100% total number of states
2. Valid transitions coverage (0-switch): No. of exercised valid transitions Coverage = ------------------------------------ × 100% total number of valid transitions
3. All transitions coverage (covers both valid/invalid transitions)

• Full all transitions coverage guarantees full state and valid transition coverage

(2) White-Box Test Techniques

Statement Testing

• Aims to exercise statements until acceptable coverage
• Coverage formula: No. of statements exercised by test cases Coverage = ------------------------------------------------------ × 100% Total number of executable statements

Branch Testing

• Aims to exercise branches until acceptable coverage
• Coverage formula: No. of branches exercised by test cases Coverage = ------------------------------------------------- × 100% Total number of branches

Value of White-box Testing

• Applicable in static testing (reviewing non-executable code)
• Measures actual code coverage (unlike black-box alone)

Collaboration-based Test Approaches

Collaborative User Story Writing

• 3 C's:
• Card: Medium describing user story
• Conversation: Explanation of software usage
• Confirmation: Acceptance criteria
• User story format:
  "As a [role], I want [goal], so that [business value]"
• INVEST criteria:
• Independent, Negotiable, Valuable
• Estimable, Small/Testable

Acceptance Criteria

• Conditions for user story acceptance
• Purposes:
• Define story scope
• Reach stakeholder consensus
• Describe positive/negative scenarios
• Basis for acceptance testing
• Enable planning/estimation
• Formats:
• Scenario-oriented (Given/When/Then)
• Rule-oriented (bullet points, input-output tables)

Acceptance Test-driven Development (ATDD)

• Test-first approach
• Test cases created before implementation by diverse team members
• Execution: Manual or automated
• Process:

1. Implement positive test cases
2. Perform negative testing
3. Cover all user story characteristics

(3) Experience-based Test Techniques

Error Guessing

• Anticipates errors based on tester knowledge:
• Application history
• Developer error patterns
• Failures in similar applications

Fault Attacks

• Methodical implementation of error guessing
• Create/acquire lists of possible errors/defects
• Design tests targeting specific defects
• Sources: Experience, defect data, common knowledge

Exploratory Testing

• Best used when:
• Specifications are inadequate/absent
• Under significant time pressure
• Complementing formal techniques
• Session-based approach:
• Time-boxed execution
• Guided by test charter (objectives)
• Focus: Learning, deep exploration, untested areas

Checklist-based Testing

• Tests cover conditions from predefined checklists
• Checklist sources:
• Experience
• User importance
• Failure understanding
• Avoid in checklists:
• Automatically verifiable items
• Entry/exit criteria items
• Overly general items
• Characteristics:
• Supports functional/non-functional testing
• Provides guidelines without detailed test cases
• High-level checklists: Greater coverage but less repeatability